Silent letters

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English pronunciation and spelling are notoriously difficult, for native speakers, and especially for second language learners. This is due to the complex history of the language. English began as a form of Anglo-Saxon, or rather, a group of Old Germanic dialects spoken by the original Germanic invaders of England in the fifth century C.E. It was influenced by Dutch and Norse influences, due to invasion and its proximity to those languages. With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, a large infusion of Old French and Latin roots came into English. Each of these languages had its own spelling and pronunciation schemes, but nonetheless these linguistic influences blended into Middle English, and then Modern English. With the transition into modern English came the Great Vowel Shift, whereby the pronunciation of some English vowels underwent drastic changes. With the Modern English period, English became greatly influenced by Latin, modern French, and Greek. Some spelling patterns, for example, in French and Greek, are not pronunceable in English, so the original Greek or French spelling do not reflect modern English pronunciation. Hence, the spelling patterns of English are rather complex, and many so-called silent letters exist. Below is a breakdown of some common patterns, categorized roughly by the language influences.


1 Anglo-Saxon patterns

1.1 Final -e

In the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, the English vowel system underwent drastic changes, known as the Great Vowel Shift. The vowel qualities, or pronunciation, of long vowels in stressed syllables underwent significant changes, so that the letters <a, e, i, o, u> are pronounced as they are in modern English, and quite differently from how these vowels are pronounced in other languages that use the Latin alphabet, such as Spanish, French, German, and others. For example, 'make' was originally pronounced like /makə/, but after the vowel shift, it is pronounced like /meik/. Then the final <e> or /ə/ was deleted from pronunciation, that is, it became silent. It has been retained in the spelling, because it indicates that the main vowel of the word in the stressed syllable is long, e.g., 'cute' = /kyu:t/ versus 'cut' /kət/. This holds true for words from Anglo-Saxon, and more common words from Latin, such as the following table, which shows silent -e with various vowel plus single consonant (VCe) combinations.

Silent final -e (-VCe)
-aCe         -eCe         -iCe         -oCe         -uCe         -yCe            
abate
cake
create
date
make
placate
plate
rake
rate
rave
stake
take
allele
compete
concede
convene
delete
eve
meme
replete
scene
serene
cite
fire
mite
recite
ripe
rite
strike
awoke
abode
broke
coke
drove
rode
slope
stroke
accute
cute
lute
puke
rebuke
analyze
byte
hype
pyre
rhyme
style
tyke


1.2 Silent consonants in <gh>, <gn>, and <kn>

Several sound changes occurred in Old and Middle English involving the <g> and <k> in spelling. English used to have a velar fricative sound, the sound /x/ as in German ach or Scottish loch, but this disappeared from English. The spelling was often retained as <g> or <gh>, though the sound either became silent, or occasionally became an /f/ sound as in tough. Occasionally, a <g> was changed to <gh> in the spelling due to Dutch influences, and hence, a silent <h> in <gh> (there is also a silent <h> in some words of French origin, as discussed below).

Initial gh- = /ɡ/     Silent -gh-     Silent final -gh

ghastly
ghee
gherkin
ghetto
ghost
ghoul

alight
alright
aright
aught
beknight
besought
bethought
blight
bought
bright
brought
caught
delight
distraught
draught
dreadnought
drought
eight
fight
flight
forethought
forthright
fortnight
fought
fraught
freight
fright
handwrought
height
highlight
insight
knight
light
lightweight
methought
midnight
might
mistaught
misthought
naught
night
nought
onslaught
ought
outright
overnight
oversight
overweighs
overweight
overweight
overwrought
playwright
plight
rebought
resight
right
sight
skintight
sleight
slight
sought
straight
thought
tight
tonight
twilight
underweight
unfought
unsightly
untaught
upright
uptight
wainwright
watertight
weeknight
weight
welterweight

wright
wrought
yesternight

although
aweigh
borough
bough
breakthrough
dough
furlough
hiccough
high
inveigh
neigh
nigh
outweigh
plough
sigh
sleigh
sourdough
thigh
thorough
though
through
weigh

yarborough

The <g> and <k> were also pronounced in combinations like <gn> and <kn>, much like they are pronunced in modern German. However, the initial <g> in <gn> and initial <k> in <kn> was dropped by English speakers, leading to the silent <g> and <k> in <gn> and <kn>.

Silent <g> in initial gn- Silent <k> in initial kn-

gnarl
gnarly
gnash
gnat
gnatcatcher
gnathal
gnathic
gnathion
gnathite
gnatty
gnaw
gnawable
gneiss
gneissoid
gnocchi
gnome
gnomelike
gnomic
gnosis
gnostic
gnosticism
gnotobiotic

gnu

knack
knackered
knackwurst
knap
knapsack
knapweed
knarry
knave
knavery
knead
knee
kneecap
kneed
kneehole
kneel
kneepad
kneepan
kneesock
knell
knelt
knickerbocker
knickers
knickknack
knife
knifepoint
knight
knighthood
knit
knitwear
knob
knobby
knock
knockabout
knockdown
knocker
knockoff
knockout
knockwurst
knoll
knot
knotgrass
knothole
knotted
knotweed
know
knowable
knowledge
knowledgeable
known
knuckle
knuckleball


1.3 Silent <l>

The <l> in some words from Old English or Middle English became silent, particularly after back vowels, probably because this is easier to pronounce.

Silent l-

balm
behalf
calf
chalk
could
folk
half
palm
salmon
should
stalk
talk
walk
would
yolk


1.4 Silent <t>

The <t> became silent in some consonant clusters in older words, probably for ease of pronunciation.

Silent <t> in -stl- Silent <t> in -sten Silent <t> elsewhere

apostle
bristle
bustle
castle
epistle
gristle
hustle
hustler
jostle
justle
nestle
pestle
rustle
rustler
thistle
trestle
whistle
wrestle
wrestler

chasten

christen
fasten
glisten
hasten
listen
moisten

often


1.5 Silent <w>

The <w> has gone silent in a number of words, particularly in the combination wr- in English. Another unrelated phenomenon is the wh- spelling in English, which used to be a separate phoneme in English, the /​ʍ/, which was a voiceless equivalent of the voiced /w/ sound in wh- words like which, what, where, why.

Silent <w>

awry
playwright
sword
wrack
wraith
wrangle
wrangler
wrap
wrapper
wrath
wrathful
wreak
wreath
wreathe
wreck
wreckage
wrecked
wrecker
wren
wrench
wrest
wrestle
wrestled
wrestler
wretch
wretchedness
wrick
wriggle
wriggler
wriggly
wright
wring
wrinkle
wrinkly
wrist
wristband
wristwatch
writ
writable
write
writeoff
writer
writeup
writhe
writing
written
wrong
wrongdoer
wrongdoing
wronged
wrongful
wrongheaded
wrongheadedly
wrongly
wrote
wroth
wrothful
wrought
wrung
wry
wryly


1.6 Silent letters in compounds

Occasionally, letters in compound words have gone silent, usually for the sake of easier pronunciation. This actually includes the word island, which was an Old English compound (ig island + land), where the /g/ disappeared, and an <s> was inserted to make it similar to the word isle (which is from the Latin word insula).

  • cupboard
  • handkerchief
  • island (ig + <s> + land)
  • thumbtack (where the <b> was silent to begin with)
  • threshhold -- which is now often spelled threshold


2 French & Latin patterns

A number of words have come into English from French and Latin. This includes Latin/French words from the beggining of the Middle English period, Latin words that have come into English since the Renaissance, and modern French words. Along with this come different spelling patterns, including French spelling influences, and silent letters that were reinserted to retain the full Latin/French word roots. For example, some writers (namely, English scholars in the late medieval and early Modern English period) insisted in reinserting silent letters to show that the word contained a morpheme from French or Latin, to show its original pronunciation after a sound became silent, or to show that the word is related to other words. This was done for no cogent reason, other than to show the French/Latin roots of the words, and perhaps, so that English scholars could show off their knowledge of Latin and French. There also exist some alternations between words with silent letters and related words where the sound does surface.

  • bomb - bombard
  • receipt - reception
  • debt - debit
  • malign - malignant
  • paradigm - paradigmatic (See also Greek patterns below)
  • damn - damnation
  • doubt - Latin dubitare'
  • isle - Latin insula (See above for island, which has a different origin)


The following are common patterns of spelling irregularities due to sound changes and reinserted letters.

Silent <b> Silent <p> Silent final -gn Silent final -mb Silent final -mn Silent -s
debt
doubt
plumber
subtle
receipt

align
arraign
assign
benign
campaign
champagne
cologne
consign
deign
design
ensign
feign
foreign
impugn
malign
realign
reign
resign
sign
sovereign

aplomp
bomb
catacomb
climb
comb
coulomb
crumb
dumb
entoumb
honeycomb
jamb
lamb
limb
numb
plumb
succumb
thumb
tomb
womb


autumn

column
condemn
damn
hymn
solemn

aisle
isle


In addition, some final consonants are found in words borrowed directly from French in more modern times.

  • coup
  • grand prix
  • rendezvous
  • ballet


2.1 Silent <c>, <h>, and others

Sound changes rendered the <c> silent in certain cases, particularly in words with -scle (not to be confused with the redundant <c> below). The <h> disappeared in a few French/Latin words, and sometimes in only US or UK English.

Silent <c> Silent initial h- Others
crepuscle
corpuscle
muscle
heir

herb (US)
history (UK)
hour
honor
honest
homage

isle


2.2 Silent <u>

A silent <u> followed by another vowel is common in words of French origin, or words with French influence in the spelling. A few such words are listed below. There are also words where it is semi-functional; for example, in rogue and other words ending in <ue>, it keeps the hard <g> and prevents a soft <g> from occurring; and in words like silhouette, the <u> or <ou> before another vowel becomes a /w/ sound, just as in French.

Silent -u-

baguette
biscuit
build
building
built
circuit
disguise
guess
guest
guide
guild
guilt
guilty
guise
guitar
rogue
silhouette


2.3 Redundant <c>

Some websites treat the <c> as silent in some words, where it is really just redundant in combinations of -sc- plus a front vowel, which would make the <c> soft, or sounded like /s/ anyway. Thus, it is more of a redundant <c> than a silent <c>, and it mainly occurs in words from Latin.

Redundant <c>

abscess
ascend / ascent
conscience
conscious
crescent
descend
disciple
evanesce
fascinate
fluorescent
obscene
resuscitate
scenario
scene
scissors


3 Greek patterns

A number of spelling complexities come from word elements that are borrowed from Greek. Some Greek consonant clusters like ps- were pronounced in Greek, and are pronounced in other languages, but are not pronounced in English. Greek also had a velar fricative sound /x/, which comes into English words as <ch>, but since modern English has no such sound, these words are pronounced as /k/.

Greek <ch> = /k/

anchor
archaea
archeology
architect, architecture
archive
bronchitis
catechism
chameleon
chaos
character, characteristic
charisma
chemical, chemistry, chemist
chlorine
choreograph
chorus
christmas, christian
chromium
chronological
dichotomy
echo
hierarchy
mechanic
orchestra
orchid
parochial
psychiatric
psychic
psychology
schedule*
scheme
schism
schizophrenia
scholar
school
sepulchre
stomach
synchronize
tachycardia
tech, technology, techie
trachea
triarchic
troche


3.1 Greek <pn>, <ps>, <rh>

In Greek, the /p/ was actually pronounced in consontant clusters like <pn> and <ps>, but in English this is not pronounceable. The sequence <rh> was pronounced as a breathy /hr/ sound, but in English this is simplifed to a regular <r> sound. These occur mostly in scientific, technical, and academic terms.

Greek <ps> = /s/ Greek <pn> = /n/

psalm
psalmist
psalmody
psalter
psaltery
psephologist
psephology
pseudepigraph
pseudepigrapha
pseudo
pseudoallele
pseudocoel
pseudocoelomate
pseudocyesis
pseudomonad
pseudomorphic
pseudomorphism
pseudomorphous
pseudonym
pseudoparenchyma
pseudopod
pseudopodium
pseudopregnancy
pseudorandom
pseudos
pseudoscience
pseudoscientific
pseudoscientist
pseudoscorpion
pseudosophisticated
pseudosophistication
pseudotuberculosis
psi
psilocin
psilocybin
psilophyte
psilophytic
psilosis
psilotic
psis
psittacine
psittacosis
psoae
psoas
psoatic
psocid
psoralea
psoralen
psoriasis
psoriatic
psych
psychasthenia
psychasthenic
psyche
psyched
psychedelia
psychedelic
psychiatric
psychiatrist
psychiatry
psychic
psycho
psychoacoustic
psychoactive
psychoanalysis
psychoanalyst
psychoanalytic
psychoanalyze
psychobabble
psychobiographer
psychobiographical
psychobiography
psychobiologic
psychobiologist
psychobiology
psychochemical
psychodrama
psychodynamic
psychogenesis
psychogenetic
psychogenic
psychograph
psychohistorian
psychohistorical
psychohistory
psychokinesis
psychokinetic
psycholinguist
psycholinguistics
psychological
psychologist
psychologize
psychology
psychometric
psychometrician
psychometrics
psychometry
psychomotor
psychoneurosis
psychoneurotic
psychopath
psychopathic
psychopathics
psychopathological
psychopathologies
psychopathologist
psychopathology
psychopathy
psychopharmacological
psychopharmacologist
psychopharmacology
psychophysical
psychophysicist
psychophysics
psychophysiological
psychophysiologist
psychophysiology
psychosexual
psychosis
psychosocial
psychosomatic
psychosurgeon
psychosurgery
psychosynthesis
psychotherapeutic
psychotherapist
psychotherapy
psychotic
psychotics
psychotomimetics
psychotropic
psychrometer
psychrometric
psychrometry
psychrophilic
psylla
psyllid
psyllium
psywar

pneuma
pneumatic
pneumaticity
pneumatology
pneumatolytic
pneumatophore
pneumococcal
pneumococcus
pneumoconiosis
pneumograph
pneumonectomy
pneumonia
pneumonic
pneumonitis
pneumothorax


Greek <rh> = <r>

arrhythmia
diarrhea
eurythmic
gonorrhea
hemorrhage
hemorrhoid
lolorrhea
myrrh
phapsody
polyrhythm
pyorrhea
pyrrhic
rhabdomyalisis
rhadbovirus
rhea
rhenium
rheology
rheometer
rheophil
rheostat
rhetoric
rhetorical
rheumatic
rheumatoid
rheumatology
rhinal
rhinestone
rhino
rhinocerous
rhinologist
rhinoplasty
rhinoscopy
rhinovirus
rhiopus
rhizobial
rhizoid
rhizome
rhizopod
rhizotomy
rho
rhodic
rhodium
rhododendron
rhodomine
rhodonite
rhomboid
rhombus
rhumba
rhyme
rhythm
rhythmic
rhytidomes
scirrhous
seborrhea
tachyarrhthmia


3.2 Greek <gm>

The following are spellings with <g> from Greek that are not pronounced, unless an adjective suffix is added, e.g., paradigm → paradigmatic.

  • apothegm
  • diaphragm
  • epiphragm
  • paradigm
  • phlegm


3.3 Other Greek patterns

A few other Greek or Greek-influenced patterns exist, where consonant clusters are simplified.

Word Cluster & pronunciation    
cnidarian <cn> = /n/
mnemonic <mn> = /n/
 Cthulu     <cth> = /θ/